feat: add deferred structural mutations and entity iterators

Implement deferred structural mutations (AddComponent, RemoveComponent,
DestroyEntity) to allow safe modification of the world during
iteration.

Additionally, introduce a new `EntityIterator` API providing zero-
allocation `ref struct` iterators (`Select<T1>`, `Select<T1, T2>`, etc.)
to support manual iteration with early-exit capabilities.

As part of these changes, component access via `GetComponent<T>` during
iteration now automatically marks components as modified.

examples/TicTacToe/Commands/PlaceMarkCommand.cs

@@ -20,20 +20,20 @@ public struct PlaceMarkCommand : ICommand
         if (state.Status != GameStatus.Playing)
             return;
 
-        // Copy to locals so the lambda in ForEach can capture them
-        // (this is a struct, so `this` cannot be captured directly).
-        int row = Row;
-        int col = Col;
-
         // Find the cell entity at (Row, Col) that has no Mark.
+        // Use the iterator API with early-exit via break.
         var query = world.Query().With<Cell>().Without<Mark>().Build();
         Entity? target = null;
 
-        world.ForEach(query, (Entity entity, ref Cell cell) =>
+        using var iter = world.Select<Cell>(query);
+        while (iter.MoveNext())
         {
-            if (cell.Row == row && cell.Col == col)
+            if (iter.Current1.Row == Row && iter.Current1.Col == Col)
-                target = entity;
+            {
-        });
+                target = iter.CurrentEntity;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
 
         if (target == null)
             return; // Cell already occupied or invalid position.

examples/TicTacToe/Systems/RenderSystem.cs

@@ -24,12 +24,14 @@ public class RenderSystem : ISystem
             for (int c = 0; c < 3; c++)
                 grid[r, c] = '.';
 
-        // Fill in placed marks.
+        // Fill in placed marks using the iterator API.
         var markQuery = world.Query().With<Cell>().With<Mark>().Build();
-        world.ForEach(markQuery, (Entity entity, ref Cell cell, ref Mark mark) =>
+        using var markIter = world.Select<Cell, Mark>(markQuery);
+        while (markIter.MoveNext())
         {
-            grid[cell.Row, cell.Col] = mark.Player == Player.X ? 'X' : 'O';
+            grid[markIter.Current1.Row, markIter.Current1.Col] =
-        });
+                markIter.Current2.Player == Player.X ? 'X' : 'O';
+        }
 
         Console.WriteLine();
         Console.WriteLine("  Tic-Tac-Toe");

examples/TicTacToe/Systems/WinCheckSystem.cs

@@ -22,13 +22,14 @@ public class WinCheckSystem : ISystem
         if (state.Status != GameStatus.Playing)
             return;
 
-        // Build a 3×3 grid of marks.
+        // Build a 3×3 grid of marks using the iterator API.
         var grid = new Player[3, 3];
 
-        world.ForEach(Query, (Entity entity, ref Cell cell, ref Mark mark) =>
+        using var iter = world.Select<Cell, Mark>(Query);
+        while (iter.MoveNext())
         {
-            grid[cell.Row, cell.Col] = mark.Player;
+            grid[iter.Current1.Row, iter.Current1.Col] = iter.Current2.Player;
-        });
+        }
 
         // Check rows.
         for (int r = 0; r < 3; r++)

src/OECS/EntityIterator.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,238 @@
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+
+namespace OECS;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Provides zero-allocation ref struct iterators for querying entities.
+/// Use with <c>foreach</c> or manual <c>while (iter.MoveNext())</c>.
+/// Supports <c>break</c>, <c>continue</c>, and early returns.
+/// </summary>
+public static class EntityIterator
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns an iterator over entities matching the query, with ref access
+    /// to one component type.
+    /// </summary>
+    public static Select1<T1> Select<T1>(
+        this World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+        where T1 : struct
+    {
+        return new Select1<T1>(world, query);
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns an iterator over entities matching the query, with ref access
+    /// to two component types.
+    /// </summary>
+    public static Select2<T1, T2> Select<T1, T2>(
+        this World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+        where T1 : struct where T2 : struct
+    {
+        return new Select2<T1, T2>(world, query);
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns an iterator over entities matching the query, with ref access
+    /// to three component types.
+    /// </summary>
+    public static Select3<T1, T2, T3> Select<T1, T2, T3>(
+        this World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+        where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct
+    {
+        return new Select3<T1, T2, T3>(world, query);
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Ref struct iterator for queries with one component type.
+/// </summary>
+public ref struct Select1<T1> where T1 : struct
+{
+    private readonly World _world;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T1>? _set;
+    private readonly ComponentStore _store;
+    private readonly IReadOnlySet<Type> _without;
+    private int _index;
+    private readonly int _count;
+
+    internal Select1(World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+    {
+        _world = world;
+        _store = world.Components;
+        _without = query.Without;
+        _set = _store.GetSet(typeof(T1)) as SparseSet<T1>;
+        _count = _set?.Count ?? 0;
+        _index = -1;
+
+        _world.BeginIteration();
+    }
+
+    public Entity CurrentEntity { get; private set; }
+    public ref T1 Current1 => ref _set!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public bool MoveNext()
+    {
+        if (_set == null) return false;
+        while (++_index < _count)
+        {
+            CurrentEntity = _set.DenseEntities[_index];
+            if (CurrentEntity.Id == 1) continue; // Skip singleton.
+            if (!PassesWithout()) continue;
+            return true;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public Select1<T1> GetEnumerator() => this;
+
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        _world.EndIteration();
+    }
+
+    private bool PassesWithout()
+    {
+        foreach (var type in _without)
+        {
+            var set = _store.GetSet(type);
+            if (set != null && set.Contains(CurrentEntity))
+                return false;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Ref struct iterator for queries with two component types.
+/// </summary>
+public ref struct Select2<T1, T2>
+    where T1 : struct where T2 : struct
+{
+    private readonly World _world;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T1>? _set1;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T2>? _set2;
+    private readonly ComponentStore _store;
+    private readonly IReadOnlySet<Type> _without;
+    private int _index;
+    private readonly int _count;
+
+    internal Select2(World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+    {
+        _world = world;
+        _store = world.Components;
+        _without = query.Without;
+        _set1 = _store.GetSet(typeof(T1)) as SparseSet<T1>;
+        _set2 = _store.GetSet(typeof(T2)) as SparseSet<T2>;
+        _count = _set1?.Count ?? 0;
+        _index = -1;
+
+        _world.BeginIteration();
+    }
+
+    public Entity CurrentEntity { get; private set; }
+    public ref T1 Current1 => ref _set1!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+    public ref T2 Current2 => ref _set2!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public bool MoveNext()
+    {
+        if (_set1 == null || _set2 == null) return false;
+        while (++_index < _count)
+        {
+            CurrentEntity = _set1.DenseEntities[_index];
+            if (CurrentEntity.Id == 1) continue;
+            if (!_set2.Contains(CurrentEntity)) continue;
+            if (!PassesWithout()) continue;
+            return true;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public Select2<T1, T2> GetEnumerator() => this;
+
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        _world.EndIteration();
+    }
+
+    private bool PassesWithout()
+    {
+        foreach (var type in _without)
+        {
+            var set = _store.GetSet(type);
+            if (set != null && set.Contains(CurrentEntity))
+                return false;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Ref struct iterator for queries with three component types.
+/// </summary>
+public ref struct Select3<T1, T2, T3>
+    where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct
+{
+    private readonly World _world;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T1>? _set1;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T2>? _set2;
+    private readonly SparseSet<T3>? _set3;
+    private readonly ComponentStore _store;
+    private readonly IReadOnlySet<Type> _without;
+    private int _index;
+    private readonly int _count;
+
+    internal Select3(World world, QueryDescriptor query)
+    {
+        _world = world;
+        _store = world.Components;
+        _without = query.Without;
+        _set1 = _store.GetSet(typeof(T1)) as SparseSet<T1>;
+        _set2 = _store.GetSet(typeof(T2)) as SparseSet<T2>;
+        _set3 = _store.GetSet(typeof(T3)) as SparseSet<T3>;
+        _count = _set1?.Count ?? 0;
+        _index = -1;
+
+        _world.BeginIteration();
+    }
+
+    public Entity CurrentEntity { get; private set; }
+    public ref T1 Current1 => ref _set1!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+    public ref T2 Current2 => ref _set2!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+    public ref T3 Current3 => ref _set3!.Get(CurrentEntity);
+
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public bool MoveNext()
+    {
+        if (_set1 == null || _set2 == null || _set3 == null) return false;
+        while (++_index < _count)
+        {
+            CurrentEntity = _set1.DenseEntities[_index];
+            if (CurrentEntity.Id == 1) continue;
+            if (!_set2.Contains(CurrentEntity)) continue;
+            if (!_set3.Contains(CurrentEntity)) continue;
+            if (!PassesWithout()) continue;
+            return true;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public Select3<T1, T2, T3> GetEnumerator() => this;
+
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        _world.EndIteration();
+    }
+
+    private bool PassesWithout()
+    {
+        foreach (var type in _without)
+        {
+            var set = _store.GetSet(type);
+            if (set != null && set.Contains(CurrentEntity))
+                return false;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}

src/OECS/World.cs

@@ -24,13 +24,28 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     private bool _singletonCreated;
     private bool _disposed;
 
-#if DEBUG
+    // Deferred structural mutation support: when iterating entities,
-    // Tracks entities whose components were accessed via GetComponent<T>
+    // AddComponent, RemoveComponent, and DestroyEntity are buffered and
-    // but never had MarkModified<T> called. Used to warn about missing
+    // applied after the iteration completes.
-    // MarkModified calls after a system runs.
+    private int _iterationDepth;
+    private readonly List<PendingMutation> _pendingMutations = new();
+
+    private enum PendingMutationKind { AddComponent, RemoveComponent, DestroyEntity }
+
+    private struct PendingMutation
+    {
+        public PendingMutationKind Kind;
+        public Entity Entity;
+        public object? Component; // boxed struct for AddComponent
+        public Type ComponentType;
+    }
+
+    // Auto-dirty-marking: during iteration, component accesses via
+    // GetComponent<T> are tracked. When the iteration scope ends,
+    // all accessed components are automatically marked as modified.
+    // Outside of iteration, MarkModified<T> must be called explicitly.
     private readonly HashSet<(Entity Entity, Type ComponentType)> _accessedComponents = new();
     private readonly HashSet<(Entity Entity, Type ComponentType)> _markedModified = new();
-#endif
 
     public World()
     {
@@ -75,6 +90,21 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     ///   from the source entities.
     /// </summary>
     public void DestroyEntity(Entity entity)
+    {
+        if (_iterationDepth > 0)
+        {
+            _pendingMutations.Add(new PendingMutation
+            {
+                Kind = PendingMutationKind.DestroyEntity,
+                Entity = entity
+            });
+            return;
+        }
+
+        DestroyEntityImpl(entity);
+    }
+
+    private void DestroyEntityImpl(Entity entity)
     {
         if (!_allocator.IsAlive(entity))
             return;
@@ -135,6 +165,23 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     /// the reverse index is updated automatically.
     /// </summary>
     public void AddComponent<T>(Entity entity, T component) where T : struct
+    {
+        if (_iterationDepth > 0)
+        {
+            _pendingMutations.Add(new PendingMutation
+            {
+                Kind = PendingMutationKind.AddComponent,
+                Entity = entity,
+                Component = component,
+                ComponentType = typeof(T)
+            });
+            return;
+        }
+
+        AddComponentImpl(entity, component);
+    }
+
+    private void AddComponentImpl<T>(Entity entity, T component) where T : struct
     {
         ThrowIfNotAlive(entity);
 
@@ -170,6 +217,22 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     /// the reverse index is updated automatically.
     /// </summary>
     public void RemoveComponent<T>(Entity entity) where T : struct
+    {
+        if (_iterationDepth > 0)
+        {
+            _pendingMutations.Add(new PendingMutation
+            {
+                Kind = PendingMutationKind.RemoveComponent,
+                Entity = entity,
+                ComponentType = typeof(T)
+            });
+            return;
+        }
+
+        RemoveComponentImpl<T>(entity);
+    }
+
+    private void RemoveComponentImpl<T>(Entity entity) where T : struct
     {
         // Update relationship index before removal.
         if (typeof(IRelationship).IsAssignableFrom(typeof(T)))
@@ -192,15 +255,15 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     /// Returns a reference to the component of type <typeparamref name="T"/>
     /// for the given entity. Throws if the entity does not have the component.
     ///
-    /// After mutating the component through this reference, you must call
+    /// During iteration (inside <see cref="ForEach"/> or a <c>Select</c> loop),
-    /// <see cref="MarkModified{T}"/> so that observers are notified.
+    /// components accessed through this method are automatically marked as
-    /// In DEBUG builds, a warning is logged if you forget.
+    /// modified when the iteration scope ends. Outside of iteration,
+    /// <see cref="MarkModified{T}"/> must be called explicitly.
     /// </summary>
     public ref T GetComponent<T>(Entity entity) where T : struct
     {
-#if DEBUG
+        if (_iterationDepth > 0)
-        _accessedComponents.Add((entity, typeof(T)));
+            _accessedComponents.Add((entity, typeof(T)));
-#endif
         return ref _components.Get<T>(entity);
     }
 
@@ -226,16 +289,14 @@ public class World : IDisposable
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Marks a component of type <typeparamref name="T"/> on the given entity
-    /// as modified. Must be called after mutating a component via
+    /// as modified. Only needed outside of iteration scopes — during
-    /// <see cref="GetComponent{T}"/> so that observers are notified.
+    /// <see cref="ForEach"/> or a <c>Select</c> loop, components accessed
+    /// via <see cref="GetComponent{T}"/> are auto-marked.
     /// </summary>
     public void MarkModified<T>(Entity entity) where T : struct
     {
         _changes.Pending.MarkComponentModified(entity, typeof(T));
-
-#if DEBUG
         _markedModified.Add((entity, typeof(T)));
-#endif
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -245,9 +306,6 @@ public class World : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     public void PostChanges()
     {
-#if DEBUG
-        WarnUnmarkedModifications();
-#endif
         _changes.Post();
     }
 
@@ -371,14 +429,9 @@ public class World : IDisposable
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// one component type.
+    /// one component type. Structural mutations (AddComponent, RemoveComponent,
-    ///
+    /// DestroyEntity) made during iteration are deferred and applied after
-    /// <b>Caution:</b> Adding or removing components (including destroying
+    /// the iteration completes.
-    /// entities) during iteration may cause entities to be skipped or
-    /// processed twice. This is a consequence of the sparse set's
-    /// swap-remove strategy. If you need to make structural changes,
-    /// collect the affected entities first, then apply changes after
-    /// the iteration.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -386,12 +439,20 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// two component types.
+    /// two component types. Structural mutations are deferred.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1, T2>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -399,12 +460,20 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct where T2 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1), typeof(T2));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// three component types.
+    /// three component types. Structural mutations are deferred.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1, T2, T3>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -412,12 +481,20 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1), typeof(T2), typeof(T3));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// four component types.
+    /// four component types. Structural mutations are deferred.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1, T2, T3, T4>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -425,12 +502,20 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct where T4 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1), typeof(T2), typeof(T3), typeof(T4));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// five component types.
+    /// five component types. Structural mutations are deferred.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1, T2, T3, T4, T5>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -438,12 +523,20 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct where T4 : struct where T5 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1), typeof(T2), typeof(T3), typeof(T4), typeof(T5));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Iterates all entities matching the query, providing ref access to
-    /// six component types.
+    /// six component types. Structural mutations are deferred.
     /// </summary>
     public void ForEach<T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6>(
         QueryDescriptor query,
@@ -451,7 +544,85 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         where T1 : struct where T2 : struct where T3 : struct where T4 : struct where T5 : struct where T6 : struct
     {
         ValidateQueryTypes(query, typeof(T1), typeof(T2), typeof(T3), typeof(T4), typeof(T5), typeof(T6));
-        QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        BeginIteration();
+        try
+        {
+            QueryExecutor.ForEach(_components, query, action);
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            EndIteration();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Begins an iteration scope. Structural mutations are buffered
+    /// until <see cref="EndIteration"/> is called.
+    /// </summary>
+    internal void BeginIteration()
+    {
+        _iterationDepth++;
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Ends an iteration scope. When the outermost scope ends, all
+    /// buffered structural mutations are applied and auto-tracked
+    /// component modifications are posted.
+    /// </summary>
+    internal void EndIteration()
+    {
+        _iterationDepth--;
+        if (_iterationDepth == 0)
+        {
+            // Auto-mark all components accessed via GetComponent<T>
+            // during the iteration as modified.
+            foreach (var (entity, componentType) in _accessedComponents)
+            {
+                if (!_markedModified.Contains((entity, componentType)))
+                {
+                    _changes.Pending.MarkComponentModified(entity, componentType);
+                }
+            }
+            _accessedComponents.Clear();
+            _markedModified.Clear();
+
+            FlushPendingMutations();
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void FlushPendingMutations()
+    {
+        if (_pendingMutations.Count == 0)
+            return;
+
+        foreach (var m in _pendingMutations)
+        {
+            switch (m.Kind)
+            {
+                case PendingMutationKind.AddComponent:
+                    // Use reflection to call AddComponentImpl<T>.
+                    var addMethod = typeof(World).GetMethod(
+                        nameof(AddComponentImpl),
+                        System.Reflection.BindingFlags.NonPublic | System.Reflection.BindingFlags.Instance)!;
+                    var genericAdd = addMethod.MakeGenericMethod(m.ComponentType);
+                    genericAdd.Invoke(this, [m.Entity, m.Component]);
+                    break;
+
+                case PendingMutationKind.RemoveComponent:
+                    var removeMethod = typeof(World).GetMethod(
+                        nameof(RemoveComponentImpl),
+                        System.Reflection.BindingFlags.NonPublic | System.Reflection.BindingFlags.Instance)!;
+                    var genericRemove = removeMethod.MakeGenericMethod(m.ComponentType);
+                    genericRemove.Invoke(this, [m.Entity]);
+                    break;
+
+                case PendingMutationKind.DestroyEntity:
+                    DestroyEntityImpl(m.Entity);
+                    break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        _pendingMutations.Clear();
     }
 
     // ── Internal Access ───────────────────────────────────────────────
@@ -512,28 +683,4 @@ public class World : IDisposable
         _disposed = true;
         _changes.Dispose();
     }
-
-#if DEBUG
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Logs warnings for any components that were accessed via
-    /// <see cref="GetComponent{T}"/> but never had
-    /// <see cref="MarkModified{T}"/> called.
-    /// </summary>
-    private void WarnUnmarkedModifications()
-    {
-        foreach (var (entity, componentType) in _accessedComponents)
-        {
-            if (!_markedModified.Contains((entity, componentType)))
-            {
-                Debug.WriteLine(
-                    $"[OECS] Warning: Component '{componentType.Name}' on {entity} " +
-                    $"was accessed via GetComponent but MarkModified was never called. " +
-                    $"Observers will not be notified of the change.");
-            }
-        }
-
-        _accessedComponents.Clear();
-        _markedModified.Clear();
-    }
-#endif
 }